Advantages

Fluorometric methods have many advantages over other methods. As one author state, "Chlorophyll a was selected because... it is the only index of Phytoplankton abundance presently available that can be measured by a continuous in-situ technique..." According to another researcher, "The relative simplicity of these techniques enables much information to be rapidly gathered..." A comparison study conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has shown that fluorometric methods compare favoraly with spectrophotometric results. Fluorometry has the following advantage over spectrophotometry.

Sensitivity: Fluorometry is at least 1,000 times more sensitive than the spectrophotometric techniques. Up to 10 liters of water may be required for a single spectrophotometric chlorophyll determination, but the fluorometer can obtain the same data from samples of 500 ml of less.

Sometimes the large volumes required for spectrophotometric determination are nearly impossible to filter because of clogging problems.

The spectrophotometric determination of chlorophyll involves filtration, disruption of the cells, and extraction of the chlorophyll, followed by absorbance measurements. The same extraction technique can be used to produce samples for fluorometric determination, with the advantage of greater sensitivity and thus smaller sample requirements.

Speed: With a spectrophotometer, one must measure absorbance at several wavelengths, with the fluorometer, only one setting is needed.

Wavelength Settings: Good results with the fluorometer do not depend on critical wavelength settings.

Cuvettes: Fluorometric measurements are not critically dependent on cuvette handing and matching. Ordinary round borosilicate culture tubes normally are used as cuvettes for discrete samples.

On-the-Spot Results: For many applications,the fluorometer can go on location and be used in-vivo, on a continuous-flow basis, eliminating delays for extraction, processing, and laboratory measurement. The field fluorometer can even operate on battery power in a small open boat. Information is continuously and immediately available. Thus the operating plan can be changed immediately according to interim results instead of having to wait for laboratory results and make repeated field trips.

IN-VIVO AND EXTRACTIVE METHODS: OVERVIEW

Where chlorophyll-containing organisms are small enough, as with phytoplankton, fluorescence may be measured directly, without extraction or chemical treatment. For many kinds of qualitative work, in-vivo measurement alone may answer the experimenter's questions. For quantitative determinations, the in-vivo data are calibrated by correlation with other measurements.

In-vivo fluorescence measurements may be taken either: (1) On continuously flowing water with the 10-AU Field Fluorometer; or (2) On discrete water samples ("grab samples") in the field with the 10-AU Field Fluorometer, or in the laboratory with the TD-700 Laboratory Fluorometer.

IN-VIVO MEASUREMENTS

Direct fluorescence measurements of living cells have been put to many imaginative uses, and developments in this area are continuing at a rapid pace today.

Distribution and Life Pattern Studies

The first efforts at using fluorometry for chlorophyll determination in the field led experimenters to appreciate the variety of natural-distribution studies that the technique would permit, It was and remains the only way really to cover an area quickly for studies investigating the horizontal and vertical distribution of phytoplankton. Several broad bypes of studies have been done:

In-vivo Mapping measurements have been used in both fresh and marine waters to develop population profiles. Ocean mapping, on its own or as a verification tool for aerial and satellite surveys, has provided information for studies such as those on the location of upwelling of deep ocean water (fishing areas). Mixing patterns in lakes, estuaries, and ocean waters have been examined. The in-vivo method has been used to follow the progress of dinoflagellate blooms, and the effect on productivity over an area affected by sewage discharges. A recent technique employed fluorometry for high-speed mapping of chlorophyll a in aquatic system.

Vertical distribution studies. Dropping a probe and pumping water continuously or collecting grab samples below the level where pumping is practical has permitted vertical as well as horizontal mapping in studies aimed at understanding phytoplankton distribution.

Sinking-rate studies. Techniques for laboratory measurement of sinking rates of phytoplankton in both marine and fresh waters have been developed. These methods, although different, both involve determination of time required for cells to fall through the illumination area of a cuvette. Sinking-rate studies both in open ocean and in lakes have been done also.

Characterization of populations. without resorting to microscopic counts has been another area of investigation. The effect of sewage discharges on species composition has been studied.

Biomass, standing crop, primary production. Much work has been done, with varying results, in attempts to relate in-vivo fluorometric measurements to other quantitative measures. These studies have led to work on factors affecting fluorescence efficiency and the use of photosynthesis-inhibiting poisons.

Stress Effects

Variable results in the relationship of population level to in-vivo fluorescence, as well as environmental concerns, have inspired studies of the response of phytoplankton to many single-parameter stresses. The effects of metal ions, both as required, limiting nutrients and as growth-limiting toxins, have been examined, as have the influence of other toxins and of light levels. One might suspect that Kartsky effects would occur on entry of a dark-adapted sample into the lighted sample compartment of the fluorometer, but the illumination level (about 2 w/m2) is so low that this effect is not seen.

Water Quality

In related work, phytoplankton response to complex man-made interventions has been measured. Several studies have examined the effects on phytoplankton of power-plant cooling-system entrainment, including chlorination and the presence of other algicides and toxins as well as thermal stress. Heat has been found to have less effect than toxins. Some of these studies involved the use of extractive techniques; however, the results might have been more quickly and economically obtained through in-vivo measurement.

Eutrophication of lakes, a matter of environmental interest, has been the subject of both historical and predictive studies. Related work has covered the effectiveness of sewage treatment processes.

Work with the Algal Assay Procedure bottle test (AAP;bt) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency attemps to relate laboratory cultures to natural populations, the test is widely used.

The effects of marine dumping of wastewater sludge have been studied in the Gulf of Mexico and in the New York Bight Apex. Guidelines for such bioassays have been issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

The cultivation and nutrient balance of large-scale phytoplankton cultures for aquaculture/mariculture also has been examined with the use of the fluorometer.

Calibration, Standard, and Interferences: Overview

The readout produced by a fluorometer is relative and therefore must be related to the concentration of a standard during calibration. A standard is a known concentration or known dilution of the substance to be measured. For studies on natural populations frequent calibration against a chlorophyll standard is important because:

1. The amount of organic substance associated with a given quantity of plant pigment varies widely, depending on the class and health of the organisms. For example, the conversion factor between chlorophyll-a and total plant carbon can very from 25 to 100 and, in special cases, even more.

2. The presence of humic materials, detritus, or competing dissolved fluorescing compounds may or may not interfere, depending on the nature of the study.

3. The in-vivo fluorescence efficiency of chlorophyll is species dependent. It slso depends on the age of a culture.

4. The in-vivo fluorescence efficiency of chlorophyll depends on the history of light exposure of the organisms. It is thus related to mixing history and diurnal cycles.

5. Fluorescence efficiency in-vivo also depends on nutrient availability and the presence of toxins.

Anyone considering the use of in-vivo chlorophyll techniques should read the excellent articles by Kiefer and Loftus and Seliger. These papers indicate that stress effects may be greatly reduced and that much can be learned about the physical condition of the organisms under study.

EXTRACTIVE MEASUREMENTS

Fluorometric measurements on solvent extracts from disrupted cells usually are done to determine the absolute amount of chlorophyll present and theamount of the primary degradation product, pheophytin. The extracted chlorophyll methods can be performed with a 10-AU Fluorometer equipped with a discrete sample adaptor or with a TD-700 Laboratory Fluorometer.

The extractive method has been used in studies of many of the types that we already have discussed. It is well established for quantitative use in the laboratory. For most practical work, the materials of interest are chlorophyll-a and pheophytin-a. Detailed procedures for determining them are available. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Method 445.0 provides a step-by-step procedure for determining chlorophyll-a and pheophytin-a. Basically, these methods involve six steps: filtration, extraction, measurement, acidification, remeasurement, and calculation.